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Lecture 6 - Optimates vs. Populares

Regarding lecture 5 - the Gracchus brothers are a prime example of morally debatable figures in history. Both, in the context of the people of Rome, were platonic Good - they fought for the little things for the people. However, they also are regarded as the catalyst which led to the fall of the Republic. In this sociopolitical standpoint, they later led to a lot of misery.

Optimates: "best ones". From Wikipedia: 'Among other things, optimates have been seen as supporters of the continued authority of the senate, politicians who operated mostly in the senate, or opponents of the populares.'

Populares: "supporters of the people". From Wikipedia: 'The populares have also been seen as focusing on operating before the popular assemblies, generally in opposition to the senate, using "the populace, rather than the senate, as a means [for advantage].'

Not patrician vs. plebian, but rather based on outlook and procedural proclivities (senate vs. popular assemblies).

Politicians could on a case-by-case basis adopt "optimate" or "popularis" positions - 'politically fluid'.

I got a bit distracted here looking at Mountain Project.

Social War (91-87 BC)

  • Romans kept resisting Italian demands for Roman citizenship
    • So, Italians formed a league and created an uprising in 91
    • Sought to create 'independent Italy'?
  • Some communities remained loyal to Rome, Romans rewarded them with citizenship
    • Rebelled to get citizenship - loyal ones got citizenship - lol.
    • This drained support for the rebellion gradually
  • Wikipedia: "The massive expansion of the citizenship that followed the Social War remained a politically-charged topic, especially in terms of how they would be allocated into voting blocks. Disputes over enfranchisement played a role in Sulla's march on Rome in 88 BC to depose plebeian tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus."

Sulla

  • Patrician aristocrat who originally served under Marius during Jugurthine War; became enemy of Marius after.
  • Became consul in 88, tasked with commanding Roman army to make war against Mithradates king of Pontus.
    • Pontus: very rich eastern kingdom, lots of bounty.
  • Marius wants to come out of retirement to lead army; Marius's allies connive to move command from Sulla to Marius
    • Tribune of the plebs gets law enacted to this end, making Marius the army's commander
    • Marius sends legates to Sulla to order him to turn the army over to him.

Now.

  • Sulla ends up killing Marius's legates
  • Sulla appeals to the soldiers about the injustice of the proposal, calling on them to defend his honor against Marius's insulting claims to command
  • All but one of Sulla's officers abandon him, but the rank-and-file troops back him, and Sulla marches on Rome.
  • Marius & his allies flee Rome before Sulla took it over. Sulla becomes the first Roman general to lead his army against Rome.
    • Sulla held new consular elections, which were free and fair
    • One of the new consuls (Cinna) was an enemy of Sulla, so Sulla forced consuls to swear to uphold Cinna's authority regardless.
  • Sulla marches off to the east and defeats Mithradates
  • Marius: returns to Rome from exile, elected consul again, then persecutes Sulla's family and supporters, kills a ton of people, then dies of old age.
    • "Within weeks" according to Wikipedia.
  • Cinna, Marius's supporter, takes over Marius's faction and stays in office without holding elections for a number of years, until the army mutinied and kills him too.

Thus ends Marius and Cinna.

  • Sulla returns to Italy in 83 BC.
  • Had most of his supporters (and victorious army) with him, pretty annoyed.
  • Armies defeat Marian faction, Sulla took over Rome, having himself elected dictator.
    • Dictator is technically a constitutional office - useful when state is in jeopardy.
    • Begins dictatorship by proscribing all his enemies (listed enemies he wanted killed for bounty).
    • Reorganized government. Undoes pretty much all the stuff that gives power to the people, castrated the plebian tribune, gave Senate more authority, generally benefitted the Optimates.
    • Then resigns, partied in villa for a few years until death.
  • Set precedent of military force to achieve political solutions.

Julius Caesar

  • Born into a blue-blooded (claims divinity) patrician family
  • Formed an alliance with Pompey (old lieutenant of Sulla) and Crassus (richest man in Rome)
  • Pooling resources, Caesar is elected consul in 59

Pompey, Caesar and Crassus are some of the most popular men in Rome at this point - effectively totally control Roman politics for next decade.

  • 58, Caesar becomes governor of Rome's then-small Gallic province: then, conquered rest of Gaul over the next decade.
  • 54, Caesar's daughter Julia (wife of Pompey) dies; Caesar and Pompey have a strained relationship after.
  • 53: Crassus dies fighting the Persians

Caesar and Pompey become rivals at this point.

  • 49: Pompey orchestrates to deny Caesar the right to run for reelection to consulship in absentia and orders Caesar return to Italy unarmed.
  • Mark Antony (tribune of the plebs) vetoes anti-Caesar measures but is threatened by the Pompeians
  • Flees to Caesar in Gaul, relates what's happened.
  • Like Sulla, appeals to army.
    • This time, all but a single officer rally behind him & rank and file.
    • Single officer is a childhood friend of Caesar - alas.
  • Crosses the Rubicon (legal boundary of Italy) and wages civil war against Pompey, emerging victorious as dictator of Rome.

Rule of Caesar

As dictator, Senate votes many honors upon Caesar.

  • Starts seeming like a "dominus" to many aristocrats, who had lost their freedom since Caesar controls the govt.

Missed some stuff here - writing an email.

Brutus

Marcus Junius Brutus (descendent of legendary Brutus who overthrew Tarquin) becomes leader of the conspiracy to overthrow Caesar despite being a friend to him. Around 60-70 senators are part of the conspiracy, including Cassius (Brutus's co-leader)

15 March 44 BC, Caesar slain in the senate.

  • Action was very unpopular with the Roman masses; Appian says the assassins were mistaken in thinking the people cared about 'freedom'.
    • Rioting breaks out, total chaos.
    • Assassins have to flee Rome.
  • Mark Antony as consul claims leadership of the Caesarians and negotiates a compromise with the assassins.
    • Assassins lives supposed to be spared, Caesar's actions supposed to be ratified.